Problem-Solving Strategy

 Problems: It is a situations in which we experience uncertainty or difficulty in achieving what we want to achieve.

Problem-Solving strategy: Problem-solving is a tool, a skill, and a process. As a tool is helps you to solve a problem or achieve a goal. As a skill you can use it repeatedly throughout your life. And, as a process it involves a number of steps.

Purposes of problem solving:   
•To give “tools” with which to face the challenges of the real world.
•To help students to foster self discovery and adaption.
•To help students understand complex dilemmas.
•To help students think about the problems and trace the obstacles to achieve the objective.
•Can be guided to effective problem solving strategies.

PRINCIPLES OF PROBLEM SOLVING:

• Model a useful problem-solving method(Show students by your example how to be patient).
•  Teach within a specific context(Teach problem-solving skills in the context in which they will be used).
• Help students understand the problem(students need to define the end goal).
• Take enough time(When planning a lecture/tutorial, budget enough time for understanding the problem and defining the goal).
• Ask questions and make suggestions(Ask students to predict “what would happen if…”).
• Link errors to misconceptions(Use errors as evidence of misconceptions, not carelessness or random guessing).

 Types of Problem Solving Strategy.

1. Convergent/closed problem.

              -In this type of problem solving strategy, it need to have a right answer ( need a fixed answer).
   
     2.  Divergent/open-ended problem.
              -In this type  it requires knowledge from different areas.

Elements of  Problem Solving Strategy.

• The definition of a problem(should have some knowledge of a problem to solve it).
• The definition of problem solving(Should have some connection between thinking and knowledge).
• Algorithms(Using of step by steps procedure to solve the problems).
• Heuristics(Need self- exploration).
• The relationship between theory and practice.
• Teaching creativity(applying of previous learned knowledge,no new creation).
• The transfer or the application of conceptual knowledge. 

Procedure of Problem Solving Strategy.

•  Define The Problem(How is the current situation different from what you actually want it to be?).
• Problem Analysis( Should analyzed how is the problem effecting you and other people).
• Generate possible Solutions(Finding solutions involves analyzing the problem to ensure that you fully understand it).
• Analyze the Solution(Think about the solution weather the solution is relevant to your solution or not).
• Implementation( Find out weather you have achieved what you wanted and how effective was the solution). 

 
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Problem Solving Strategy
Advantages: 

• Solving of problems in real life experience/situation.
• It gives direction to a decision and prevent wondering.
• It contributes to the personality development of a child.

Disadvantages:

• It create fake ideas about the problems.
• Create over realization.
• Forming hasty conclusion. 

Individualized Instruction Strategy

Individualized instruction strategy.

It is also called differentiated instruction. Here teacher should not stick on a method but try with many and they must observe the student individually.

Definition- Classroom practices of teaching which recognizes the uniqueness of each student learner and thus provides for adequate tutorial, guide and other support services suited to bring about development in the person

Purpose of Individualized instruction strategy

•    To enhance and develop listening habit
•    Enables the teachers to explain a lesson or demonstrate a technique to small groups of students at a time
•    Individualizing instruction allows each student to progress through the curriculum at his or her own      pace
•    Long term retentions they note down what they usually understand
•    Importance is given as individual not as group or class
•   Careful use of teaching aids is encouraged
•    Smooth and continuous lesson but timely interruption
•    Uniform and equal learning despite of individual differences
•     Less time and effort needed for re-teaching the weak areas
•    Provide the normal students the opportunities and needs to make them successful

Principles of Individualized instruction strategy

• Clarify key concept and generation to ensure that all learner gain powerful understanding.
•     Use assessment as a teaching tool to extend various merely measure instruction.
•    Emphasis critical and creative thinking as a goal in lesson design.
•    Engaging all learners is essential.
•  Provide balance between teacher-assigned and student assigned task,

Requirement of Individualized instruction strategy

•      Each student learn differently.
•     All students are talented in different ways.
•     Educating children with special needs.
•     It meets the unique educational needs of the children.
•     Teaching requires differentiated and individualized instruction.

Procedure for Individualized instruction strategy

1) Content

•   it includes the knowledge, skills and the attitude we want children to learn
•  Must have the tasks and the objectives to achieve the learning goals
•  Teacher must focused on the principle and the skills

2) Process- in include varying learning activities to provide appropriate method for the students to explore concept

3) Product

•   Initial and on- going assessment of student’s readiness and growth are essential
•   Students are active and responsible
•   Varying expectation and requirement for the student’s responses

Advantages of Individualized instruction strategy

•    Meeting needs and interest of diverse learners.
•  Help student’s background knowledge, language, readiness and preferences in learning, interests and to react responsively.
•    Maximizes each students growth and individual success.
• Helps in providing for the uniqueness of each children.

Disadvantages of Individualized instruction strategy

•     Time constraint and chopped up schedules are an obstacle.
•    Class size and teaching load are two of the biggest constraint .
•    Teacher preparedness.

Field trip

Field trip strategy

Field trip was introduced in 1827 by George Shilibees for a Quarter School at Abney Pared in Slode Newington, London, United Kingdom.

Definition-A field trip is a visit to a place outside the regular classroom designed to achieve certain objectives which cannot be achieve by using other means..

Features of field trip

•   It facilitate the learning of abstract concepts.
•   It motivates students through increased interest and curiosity.
•   It increases student-student and student-teacher social interaction.
•   Develops social awareness.

Purpose of field trip

•   It enhance the curriculum.
•   Renewal by saving from boredom and refreshing.
•   Give students experiential learning experiences.
•   Concrete skills such as note taking.
•   Involvement in real world experience makes learning more meaningful and memorable.
•   It helps students appreciate the relevance and importance of what they learn in the class.

Types of field trip

1.       Instructional trips- It is a visit by the class or group of classes to a location outside the regular classroom.

2.       School contest of festivals- It is to provide an opportunity for student s to demonstrate knowledge and skills developed through subject area instruction.

3.       Motivation trips- it is going out with our own interest and it provide a motivational initiative for the school, clubs, class and it is related to improving the school climate. 

Steps involved

Her e there are six steps involved which are as follows;

•        Trip selection.
•        Logistics planning.
•        Field trip preparation or pre-trip discussion.
•     The Field Trip.
•        Post field trip.
•        Evaluation of the trip.

And this strategy is having advantages and the disadvantages which are as follows;

Advantages

•   Real world experience.
•   Increase in quality of education.
•   Improvement of the social relation.

Disadvantages

•   Expensive.
•   Time consuming.
•   Lack of support from school administration fort he field trip.
•   Poor student’s behavior and attitude.
•   Shortage of resources and choice of venue.
•   Medical risk

Role Play

FOUNDER OF ROLE PLAY 

•          Physician Jacob L. Moreno (1889-1974) in Vienna.

•          The term "role" comes from the "rolled-up" script actors used to use over two thousand years ago in Ancient Greece.   

WHAT IS ROLE PLAY?

•          Role-play is any speaking activity when you either put yourself into somebody else’s shoes, or when you stay in your own shoes but put yourself into an imaginary situation!  

 
WHY USE ROLE PLAY

•         It’s fun and motivating 
•         Quieter students get the chance to express themselves in a more forthright way 
•         The world of the classroom is broadened to include the outside world 
•         Teaching communication skills. 
•         Identifying options and solutions.  
•         Managing conflict. 
•         Practicing newly acquired competencies. 
•         Exploring attitudes toward reactions and situations.

VALUES OF ROLE PLAY

•           Engage participants in better understanding of the motivation behind their behavior and emotions. 
•           Enable participants to practice newly acquired competencies in a safe environment, such as communication skills, problem-solving or conflict management. 
•           Provide analysis of learner's reactions and responses through direct and immediate feedback.

Principles of role-play

•Match the role play to the target concept
•Choose the technique with care.
–Pairs
–Small groups
–One group presenting and other observing
–Form groups of appropriate size.
•Take Your Students Where You Find Them
–issues that matters and interest them
–Meaningful problems are better teachers
•Ask Leading Questions and Let Them Talk

•Allow time for questions and discussion of the scenarios.
•Define the student’s roles
•End the role play as soon as the problem is resolved (don't let it drag on).
•Leave time for discussion afterwards.
•Be Mindful

Purpose of Role Play 

•          To stimulate interest among the students because children have always enjoyed learning through mimicking and duplicating the actions of others including their parents and peers.
•          For long term retention-Learning by acting. People enjoy playing, especially young people. If students are already motivated to play, learning through play would become even easier.
•          For cognitive learning method-Role playing encourages the use of critical thinking because it involves analyzing and problem solving, therefore role play is a cognitive learning method. 
•          Role-playing teaches many lessons; some of the most important lessons it teaches are lessons that are needed in society, competition, cooperation and empathy. 
•          It enhances active participation and decision making-Participation in role-play allows students to make decisions, and through the feedback he or she receives, he sees the results of his actions, and can therefore learn how to adjust his words and actions to produce more likeable results. 
•          For the exchange of knowledge-Role-play allows exchange of knowledge between students.The teacher is also able to see the various capabilities of students at the same time. 
•          To develop communication skills and build confidence-Role-play allows interaction between classmates and peers. It also allows introverted students to speak out. It helps to break down ”cliques”

Procedure of the Role Play

 1.   Prepare class for role-play

•         Present an artificial problem, situation or event that represents some aspect of reality.
•         Define the problem, situation and roles clearly.

 2.   Give clear instructions

•         Determine whether role-plays will be carried out using student volunteers in front of the class (the teacher may or may not play a role), in partnerships/small groups with every student playing a role, or in small groups with role-players and observers.
•          Divide students into groups, if appropriate.Using Small Group Activities
•          Model the skill with a scripted role-play.

 3.   Act out role-plays

•          Students follow the procedure outlined by the teacher to act out role-plays.
•          Unless the teacher is playing a role, it is helpful to walk around the room and observe how students are experiencing the role-play and offer coaching to students who are stuck.

Discussion (small group and whole class)

•          Begin by allowing players to communicate feelings experienced during the role-play.
•          Have students identify sexual health skills that were demonstrated during the role-play.
•          Determine actions that strengthen or weaken these skills (i.e. body language).
•          Discuss how this role-play is or isn’t similar to real life. 
•          Identify ways of using identified sexual health skills in real life situations. 

ALTERNATIVES TO TRADITIONAL PROCEDURE

•          Have students write role-plays as scripts.
•          Have students write down responses and then role-play in front of the class.
•          Have students generate a list of challenging “lines”, then have a student read the lines to the class and have each student give a response.
•          Have students develop and act out plays. 

TIPS FOR USING ROLE-PLAY

•         Begin with fairly easy situations and work up to more challenging ones.
•         Be aware that some students may feel threatened or self-conscious. Using humor can help dispel embarrassment. Using role-plays that exaggerate weak responses might break the ice.
•         Reduce the level of abstraction or complexity so that the students may become directly involved with underlying concepts.
•          If students find it difficult to determine skills which model sexual health, they could observe successful role models or ask experts to suggest approaches. 

Merits and Demerits of Role Play Strategy.

Merits of Role-play Strategy
1.Student interest in the topic is raised.
2.Active Participation.
3.Long-term retention.
4.It enhances communication and interpersonal skills.
5.It can be used with individuals or in group situations.
6.It teaches empathy and understanding of different perspectives.
7.It help individuals to learn to accept both their own feelings and those of others.
8.It develops confidence and self-efficacy.
9.Provides teacher immediate feedback about the learner’s understanding and ability to apply concepts.
10. It develops competence. 

          11. It is useful for a range of topics, including interviewing, counseling skills, personal relationships, and team working.
12. They require mental and physical activity e.g. gesturing to put forward a point. 13. Reduces discipline problems which often arise from boredom and lack of motivation.

Demerits of Role-play Strategy
1.Role play may awaken previously subdued or suppressed emotions.
2.Less effective in large groups (Chaos).
3.Teacher must accept her new role where she/he does not dominate the class anymore.
4.Embarrassment for some students.
5.Can lack focus unless well planned and monitored.
6.Can be unpredictable in terms of outcomes. Can be time-consuming.

Activities Based Teaching Strategy

concept:

• Is the form of teaching where the learner is actively engaged in a task.
• Focus is on making the abstract concrete and on learning by doing
• Can be teacher-driven - with direction from an instructor - or learner-driven with the learner having freedom to explore.

Principles 

• Encourage contact between student and faculty.
• Develops reciprocity and cooperation among students.
• Practical uses active learning techniques.
• Emphasizes time on task.
• Communicates high expectations 
• Respects diverse talents and ways of learning(respecting each other talents).

Types/Kinds

1. Absorb-type

• Include presentations, demonstrations, stories, and field trips.
• Informs the learner.

2.    Do-type

• Include practice, discovery, and playing game.
• Allows the learner to practice what they’ve learned.
• learner is able to actively seek, select, and create knowledge.

3.  Connect-type

• Provide a way to link learning to life, work and future learning.
• Lets the learner put what they’ve learned to use.

Criteria for organizing activities

1. Should be relevant. 
2.   Time bound.
3.  Should contain meaning .
4.  Involves real world experiences.
5. Involves skills (listening, speaking, writing, etc.
6. Engage cognitive progress. (selecting, classifying, ordering and reasoning).
7. Have particular out come.
 

Procedural steps

      1. Planning.

      2. Instructions.

      3. Monitoring.

      4. Evaluating.

Role of the teacher

1. Plan and prepare in advance.
2. Giving instruction. 
3.  Facilitating.
4. Debriefing.
5. Clarifying learners' doubts.
6. Set up routines and expectations for learning.
7. Monitor the results using appropriate assessment strategies and recording devices, e.g., checklists, rubrics etc.
8. Choose activities that are relevant and stimulating for students.
9. Provide opportunities for students to present to an appropriate audience. 
10. Observe group dynamics and co-operation.
11. Support and encourage students.

Demonstration Strategy

Definition of demonstration:

• An act of showing something by giving proof or evidence.

• An instance of somebody showing and explaining how something works.

 Demonstration strategy

• ¨Demonstration method is a visual approach to examining information, ideas and processes

• It is a teaching method that allows students to see the teacher actively engaged as a learner and a model rather than merely telling them what they need to know

Some of the silent features.

• learning by seeing (visibility)
• take them by step by step (instruction)
• if students already know the concept then ask question like 'what would be the next step?'. (gaining of attention) 

Purpose

Teacher-allows learner to view a real/life like.Example of skill or a procedure to learn.

Students- allows to demonstrate mastery.

Why to demonstration?

1. To stimulate interest in a particular topic: attracts students attentions and create interest  that the written  or spoken word cannot.
2. To illustrate points efficiently: it is useful when time or explanation alone is not sufficient.
3. To provide a change of pace:giving a students a break from other modes of instruction(verbal ones). it also avoids the boredom.
4. lack of equipment: demonstration is more effective when the shortage of resources.
5. Time constraint.
6. Risky experiment: All teacher are aware that all the experiment are not safe especially for small children (chance of hurting and burning or causing accidents). Hence teachers need to perform the experiments by themselves.

Steps/procedural involved

1. Carefully plan the demonstration
2. Practice the demonstration
3. develop on outline to guide the demonstration
4. make sure everybody can see the demonstration
5. introduce the demonstration to focus attentions
6. ask and encourage questioning
7.  plan a follow up to the demonstration

Merits

• seeing before doing
• task guidance: can be guided step by step
• Economy of supplies:Less supplies needed because not everyone needs to handle materials
• Safety: Allows teacher to control potentially dangerous materials  or machinery instead of students.

Demerits

• Not hand on: not direct hand on experience for students unless being lead to step by step
• limited view: students may not have an equal view of demonstration, so some ways miss an aspect of the demonstration
• Pacing issue: Not all the students ca follow the steps.

PROJECT TEACHING STRATEGY TEACHING

Definition 

“A project is any activity, individual or group, involving the investigation and solution of problems, planned and carried out to conclusion under the guidance of the teacher.”

-Callahan & Clark.

Features:  

•        It extends beyond classroom teaching.
•       The method is carried out in natural setting or real life situations.
•      This method involves investigation and solution to practical problems.
•      It demands and ensures active participation from the students. 
•       Involves effective interaction between the student and the social environment.
•       Creates an opportunity to acquire or practice social skills.
•       Enables the students to study functional aspects of the subjects learnt.
•       The teacher acts as a facilitator or a guide and thus promotes independent learning.

Principles of Project Strategy/method

1. Principle of Utility: the learned knowledge gained from the project is useful to learner.
2. Principle of Readiness: Learners choose the interested topic, so builds willingness and readiness to do the project.
3. Principle of Learning by Doing: Learners acquire knowledge by doing research by themselves, so learning becomes more realistic and memorable.   
4. Principle of Freedom at Work: The teacher acts only as a guide and facilitator in using this method of teaching. The students enjoy a high degree of freedom and it facilitates the emotional and intellectual development process in the learners. The learners learn to be accountable and responsible of their own obligations and develop a sense of belongingness to the work assigned.
5.  Principle of Socialization: Learner have direct contact with the social environment, they acquires   social skills necessary to adjust and live in a society. 

Types of Project Work.

•  Projects involving construction or production of a useful article/object to “embody some or      plan in external form”—Produce Type.
•  Projects providing opportunities for appreciation of some aesthetic experience—Consumer Type.
•  Projects involving study and investigation of practical situations/problems-Investigation Type.
•   Projects providing opportunities for mastery of certain skills—Drill Type

The Investigation Type of Project Work – Stages (Diana & L. Booth)

  Stage I: Classroom Planning

Step 1: Providing a set of tasks/problems for study

Step 2: Selecting a task/problem for study

Step 3: Formulation of hypothesis (for problems undertaken)

Step4: Planning/designing methods to investigate

Stage II: Execution

Step 1: Collection of data

Step 2: Organizing and interpreting data

Step 3: Review

Step III: Conclusion

Step 1: reporting and incorporating additions/deletions

Step 2: Evaluation

How to plan a project work?

A.   How to select topics?

       While selecting the topics for project work the following points should be considered:

•              The topic should be related to the syllabus content.
•             The topic should be appropriate to the class level.
•            The information on the topic should be available in the school and the community.
•          Students should be given a range of specific topics to choose from. 

•          The topic should enhance the application of the concept learnt in the classroom.

B.   What is the format for the project work write up?

The format for project work write up should include the following parts.

i.                    Title

ii.                  Table of contents

iii.                Introduction (what is the topic about? Why is it chosen?)

iv.                Method      -How is the information collected?

                              -How is the information sorted out?

                              -How is the information analyzed? 
     
v.                  Conclusion. 
  The conclusion should reflect the following:

a.       Summary of the findings
b.      Students’ experiences and opinion regarding the project work such as how he/she found the project    work (difficult, challenging), how it has been beneficial to his/her learning. 

vi.    Acknowledgement

• .       Recognition of the help received

vii.               References 
a.       List of the sources of information.

C. How to collect information?

i.                    know what information to collect
ii.                  identify possible sources of information (persons, places, books, etc.)
iii.                develop some questions to collect the information
iv.                plan field visits if any
v.                  keep notes of observations, interviews, readings
vi.                collect samples
vii.              make sketches, tables, graphs and diagrams related to the topic.

D.   How to compile information for presentation?

The students might collect lot of information. All the information may not be required and he/she should be able to sift and screen the information that is appropriate and relevant to the project topic. They should:
i.                    sort out and select the important information
ii.                  put the information order
iii.                use the information for writing the project work
The students should prepare the first draft and show it to the teacher. The students should incorporate the changes and comments recommended by the teacher. Then students should rewrite and present the final project work.

E.   Some Dos and DON’Ts

The students should follow the following instructions.

DOs

•  The project work should be written on a fullscap paper in the students’ own handwriting.
• Necessary illustrations should be drawn or sketched with pencil.
• The students can use simple colours.
• The project work should be written in students’ own words and not copied directly from the books except for quotes.

i.                 

DON’T

•             Use of pictures cut from books and magazines available in schools and photocopying should not be allowed.

•                        Students should not do unnecessary decorations of their project work using sketch and marker pens.
•                        Students should not decorate the cover page using glossy and colour paper.
•                        Students should not use folders and folders to enclose the project work.

F.   Lengths of the project work

      

       Class VI               -           150      to         300 words

       Class VII              -           250      to         400 words

       Class VIII             -           350      to         600 words

       Class IX                -           700      to         1000 words

       Class X                 -           1000    to         1500 words

How do you assess a project work?

A. Content (70 marks)

While assessing the content of the project work look at the following criteria.

1.          Is the information presented in the PW relevant to the topic? 
2.          Is the information presented in the PW accurate?
3.          Are the ideas presented in a logical order?
4.          Are the illustrations appropriate?
5.         Is the language used appropriate to the class level?
6.         Is the project written in student’s own handwriting? 
7.          Are there grammatical errors?
8.         Has the required information been included?
9.        Has the summing up or conclusion been done correctly?

B.   Presentation (10 marks)

• Is the PW presented neatly?
• Is the layout according to the given format?
• Is the writing legible?
• Is the PW written within the prescribed word limit?

C.        Process (20 marks)

• Is there a proper planning done for the PW?
• Is the PW carried out as per the plan?
• Are the sources of information authentic?
• Is the PW handed on time?